Bekçitepe Excavation Project

Excavation Name: Bekçitepe Archaeological Excavations

Province: Niğde

District: Bor

Excavation Director: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah HACAR

Institution: Hitit University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Archaeology

Contact: abdullahhacar@hitit.edu.tr, abdullahhacar@gmail.com

BEKÇİTEPE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS

General Information

The Chalcolithic Period, during which important social transformations took place in economic and political organisation, is a period that has not been extensively studied in the prehistory of Anatolia. As a result of archaeological research conducted over the last 30 years in western Cappadocia, which includes our study area, some information has been obtained about the first two phases of the Chalcolithic, traditionally referred to as Early and Middle. However, there is almost no information about the Late Chalcolithic, which spans approximately 1,500 years (4700–3300/3200 BC), not only in our study area but throughout Central Anatolia.

One of the main aims of the archaeological survey conducted in the mountainous areas of the Çamardı, Ulukışla and Bor districts of Niğde Province, initiated in 2017 under the direction of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah HACAR, was to obtain data on the Chalcolithic Period, about which little is known. Surveys carried out between 2017 and 2021 in the mountainous area north of the Central Taurus Mountains and in the Bor Plain showed that Early Chalcolithic settlements in the region displayed local differences, whereas Middle Chalcolithic settlements (5200–4700 BC) established over these earlier settlements shared standardised regional characteristics in settlement layout, architecture, pottery and small finds (Gülçur 2012; Öztan 2002; 2012; Hacar et al. 2019; Hacar 2017; 2019). The data also indicate that Late Neolithic–Early Chalcolithic communities established permanent settlements only on the plains. In contrast, Middle Chalcolithic communities, characterised by distinctive cultural materials, established settlements both over earlier settlements on the plains and in mountainous areas where permanent settlements had not previously been documented. Moreover, it appears that all Middle Chalcolithic settlements on the plains and in the mountains were abandoned at the end of the period. These findings indicate that, at the beginning of the Middle Chalcolithic, groups in western Cappadocia developed a new model of complex economic and socio-political organisation based on intensive use of mountainous areas, but that this system could not be sustained and failed at the end of the period (Hacar et al. 2019).

Another important finding from the surveys was the identification in our study area of non-local, scraped-surface “Coba-type” bowls and straw-tempered, constricted-neck jars dating to the beginning of the Late Chalcolithic (approximately 4700–4300 BC) (Hacar 2020). These non-local finds came from Bekçitepe and Adıyaman Mevkii 1, sites located along the northern boundary of the Central Taurus Mountains where excavations began in 2022. Produced through a series-production process, “Coba-type” bowls and straw-tempered jars have coarse, light-coloured surfaces, unlike the traditional fine and burnished wares known in Cappadocia since the Neolithic. Similar finds have been identified, in association with the spread of the Ubaid culture, mainly at settlements in Northern Mesopotamia, Eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. From the Late Ubaid phase onwards, they occur alongside tripartite buildings, tokens, seals and seal impressions, and are interpreted as indicators of changing socio-economic and political organisation (Stein 2010, 28–29; 2012, 128; Frangipane 2002, 127, 161–73). Coba bowls and straw-tempered jars have also been found at the Cappadocian settlements of Güvercinkayası and Fraktin Yanı. At Güvercinkayası, these bowls were discovered in Level III together with non-local seals and a type of Ubaid-like painted pottery (Gülçur 2012; Demirtaş 2018; 2015). Similar finds were also recovered at Fraktin Yanı, excavated by Tahsin Özgüç in the 1950s, alongside a pottery group that Özgüç described as Ubaid-like painted ware (Özgüç 1956).

The Bekçitepe excavations were initiated in 2022 under the direction of the Niğde Museum Directorate, with Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah HACAR as scientific coordinator, in order to investigate the questions raised by the survey results summarised above. Following completion of the necessary infrastructure work, the excavations have continued under the direction of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah HACAR since 2025. The settlement is located on the northern edge of the Central Taurus Mountains, approximately 1.2 km southwest of Havuzlu Village in Bor District, Niğde Province. The site consists of two parts: an upper mound and a lower settlement. The mound, approximately 75 m in diameter and 5–7 m high, is situated at the far end of a rocky rise overlooking the Bor Plain. This part of the rocky outcrop lies at approximately 1,240 m above sea level. To the south of the mound is a lower settlement covering approximately 1.3 hectares. Although surface surveys conducted in the lower settlement between 2017 and 2021 yielded finds predominantly dating to the Hellenistic Period, prehistoric finds, particularly those dating to the Middle Chalcolithic, were also recovered.

Objectives

In summary, the objectives of the excavations described below are to obtain detailed information about the emergence and development of Middle Chalcolithic culture, its spread to neighbouring regions according to certain principles—in other words, its transformation into a complex political organisation—and its eventual collapse. The main objectives of the Bekçitepe archaeological excavations, which surface surveys indicate contain levels dating to the end of the Late Neolithic–Early Chalcolithic, the Middle Chalcolithic and the Late Chalcolithic, are as follows:

a) To obtain data that will help analyse the lifestyles, cultural development and socio-economic organisation of communities in the mountainous areas north of the Central Taurus Mountains during the Late Neolithic and the Early, Middle and Late Chalcolithic periods.

b) To define the nature of relations between communities that chose a settled way of life and mobile communities in mountainous areas, where groups that probably maintained a nomadic lifestyle during the Neolithic were prevalent, and to determine the role of these networks in the interregional transfer of goods.

c) To determine whether Bekçitepe, located on the edge of a mountainous region containing various raw materials that influenced prehistoric cultural development—particularly metallic ores such as copper, tin and lead, which were important for early metallurgy—played a role in obtaining or processing these raw materials.

d) To enable a more detailed definition, through archaeological excavations, of relations between Central Anatolia and Cilicia from the Late Neolithic to the beginning of the Late Chalcolithic.

e) To obtain information about the transition from the Early to the Middle Chalcolithic (5500/5400–5200 BC), which remains unclear in the chronology of western Cappadocia.

f) To collect data that will help interpret the internal dynamics and economic model of the Middle Chalcolithic society that appears to have expanded into mountainous areas with a specific purpose and a newly developed complex economic and socio-political organisation, as well as the nature of its political organisation, which may have developed in connection with this system.

g) To investigate the development of the system that enabled specialisation—whose existence, albeit on a limited scale, has been identified in current research in metallurgy and the production of certain pottery types—and to examine the social structure and the nature of the political organisation that sustained this system.

h) To determine the positions of mountainous and plain settlements with similar finds, identified during surveys, within Middle Chalcolithic social organisation.

i) To assess, within the framework of theories of early state formation, the possible effects of limited agricultural land requiring protection, mineral resources and natural passes in the region on the nature of this organisation.

j) To investigate the cause of the destruction observed at the end of the Middle Chalcolithic.

k) To obtain data that will establish whether this collapse resulted from structural problems within the society’s governance or organisation, or from conflict with a community that was more motivated to expand into new regions and whose organisation was more functional and perhaps more flexible.

l) To document, define, analyse and interpret in detail the Late Chalcolithic finds that differ from the traditional finds of Central Anatolia dating from the Neolithic onwards and appear to be more closely associated with the Ubaid culture, thereby gaining information about the emergence, spread and intensity in Central Anatolia of the culture represented by Ubaid-related finds.

Summary of Excavation Information

The first season of excavations at Bekçitepe began in 2022, after the necessary preparations had been completed at the site and at the excavation house allocated to the team by Kemerhisar Municipality. Preparatory work generally involved establishing infrastructure at the excavation house, preparing topographic maps of the excavation area, taking orthophotographs and marking the grid corners. Once these tasks had been completed, excavations were carried out in trenches on the mound. To date, excavations have taken place in trenches M10a–d, K10a–b and L10c at Bekçitepe. The excavations have shown that, although Bekçitepe primarily contains Chalcolithic levels, it was used as a cemetery in later periods, probably during the Middle Ages. Nine graves have been uncovered so far. Most of the roughly east–west-oriented graves had been opened by illicit digging, and some graves and human remains had been partially damaged.

Apart from these later graves, the uppermost level at Bekçitepe dates relatively to the early phases of the Late Chalcolithic, around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. The mudbrick architectural remains uncovered immediately below the surface in trenches M10a–d belong to this phase. The square mudbricks used in the structure measure approximately 36 cm on each side. However, mudbricks of different shapes and sizes were also used in its construction. The irregular joints between the bricks vary locally from 2 to 5 cm. Unfortunately, the mudbrick structure was damaged by illicit digging in the northwestern corner of trench M10a and by the later graves mentioned above.

The 2024 excavations helped clarify the nature of the mudbrick structure. In particular, work lowering the level in trench M10d revealed that the mudbrick structure formed the uppermost level of a platform built of stone. Excavations also showed that two layers of mortar and an additional layer of small flat stones had probably been laid between the stone and mudbrick sections of the platform, both to level the surface and to provide insulation. Similar stone-and-mudbrick platforms occur at many Ubaid-related settlements, including Yumuktepe in Mersin (Level XV), which is relatively close to our region. The Bekçitepe excavations also recovered large quantities of mass-produced Coba bowls and constricted-neck jars associated with this architecture. These forms are regarded as Ubaid-influenced in northern Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Eastern Anatolia. Absolute dating supports this interpretation. Two carbon samples taken from the mortar fill between the stone and mudbrick sections of the platform were sent to TÜBİTAK-MAM for radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon analyses conducted with the support of the Turkish Historical Society indicate that this area should be dated to 5131–4883 BC.

During our surveys of the mountainous area, surface inspections at Bekçitepe in 2018 and 2019 identified notable quantities of slag and ore fragments in the soil at the entrances to animal burrows, such as those made by foxes and badgers, particularly on the slopes of the site. In 2023, excavations began in trench K10a on the western slope of the settlement, an area that could provide important evidence for early metallurgy. Subsequent excavations yielded significant information about early metal production, as anticipated. More than 100 metallurgical finds were recovered from Unit 1. These finds represent every stage of the production chain and include ore, slag, metal residues and fragments of crucibles, some with slagged inner surfaces, demonstrating that metal production took place at the settlement. XRD analyses of eight ore and slag samples were carried out at TÜBİTAK-MAM with the support of the Turkish Historical Society. According to the preliminary assessment in the report, the ores contain the copper-rich minerals malachite, cuprite and atacamite. Other slag samples from the site containing prills indicate a primitive production method more commonly found in earlier periods. Carbon samples from Unit 1 also point to a period when extractive metallurgy was only beginning to emerge, around cal. 5040–4715 BC.

The vast majority (92%) of the chipped-stone finds recovered at Bekçitepe are obsidian. Macroscopic analyses of colour and texture indicate that most of the obsidian originated from Göllüdağ. Although no blocks or preforms were found at the settlement, the finds indicate that production took place there (Hacar et al. 2024: 44).

Most of the pottery recovered at Bekçitepe closely resembles mass-produced, light-coloured vessels, possibly associated with the Ubaid culture, known mainly from northern Mesopotamia, Eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. The bowls are Coba-type in form and manufacturing technique (Rothman 2002, p. 55; Baldi 2012, pp. 394–397). Many of the recovered sherds were produced on a tournette. The fabric is generally buff, orange, pink or brown, moderately compact, and tempered with medium- to large-sized stone inclusions, sand, lime and straw. The temper does not show any standardisation. Interior surfaces are generally slipped or smoothed. After smoothing and before firing, the exterior surfaces were scraped in specific areas with a tool, leaving scraping or scoring marks. These marks generally begin below the rim and extend towards the base in curved horizontal lines, increasing in density. The bowls generally have flat bases and hemispherical body profiles. Closed-form vessels usually have smoothed or burnished surfaces, although the exterior surfaces of some jar fragments were also scraped.

Selected Publications

Articles and Book Chapters

• Hacar, A., Çetin, N., Ünlüler, Y. 2024. “New Neolithic Finds from the Highlands between Central Anatolia and Cilicia.” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 59: 1–11. (SCI-AHCI)
• Hacar, A., Ünlüler, Y., Başaran Mutlu, M., Çetin, N., Doğan, Z., Karkınlı, A. E. 2024. “Bekçitepe (Niğde-Bor) 2022 Yılı Kazıları: İlk Sezon Ön Raporu.” Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 43-1: 39–52.
• Hacar, A. 2021. “Cultural Exchanges in Cappadocia during the Chalcolithic Period: Recent Results of the Archaeological Survey in the South-western Cappadocia (2017–2019 Seasons).” In Cultural Exchange and Current Research in Kültepe and its Surroundings (Kültepe International Meetings 4; Subartu XLVI), edited by F. Kulakoğlu, G. Kryszat and C. Michel, 7–21. Turnhout: Brepols.
• Hacar, A. and Yener, A. 2020. “Anatolian Pot Marks in the Third Millennium BC: Signage, Early State Formation and Organization of Production.” Adalya, 23: 25–58. (SCI-AHCI)
• Hacar, A. 2020. “İlk Tunç Çağı Çanak-Çömlek Üretiminde Uzmanlaşma: Güneybatı Kapadokyada Uzmanlaşmış Üretim Örgütlenmesine İlişkin Yorumlar.” Belleten, 84-300: 459–502. (SCI-AHCI)
• Hacar, A. 2020. “Orta Torosların Kuzey Sınırında Orta-Geç Kalkolitik Geçiş Süreci: Ubaid-İlişkili (?) Etkiler.” TÜBA-AR, 26: 27–43.
• Hacar, A., Tektaş, M., Egeci, H. S. and Johnson, M. 2019. “Middle Chalcolithic Expansion into the Highlands of the North-Central Taurus, South-western Cappadocia.” Antiquity, 93-372: 1–7. DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2019.184 (SCI-AHCI)
• Hacar, A. 2019. “Niğde İli Dağlık Bölgenin Orta Kalkolitik Dönem Buluntu Alanları.” In Arkeolojiyle Geçen Yarım Asır: Sevil Gülçur’a 75. Yaş Armağanı, edited by P. Çaylı, I. Demirtaş and B. Eser, 21–44. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
• Hacar, A. 2017. “Possible Links Between the Highland Regions North of the Central Taurus and West Cappadocia in the Middle Chalcolithic Period (6th and 5th Millennium BC).” TÜBA-AR, 21: 11–23. DOI: 10.22520/tubaar.2017.20.001

Symposia and Webinars

• Hacar, A. 2021. “Niğde İli Dağlık Alan Yüzey Araştırması: 2019–2020 Yılları.” Türkiye Yüzey Araştırmaları Webinarı (Orta Anadolu – Karadeniz), 2: 94.
• Hacar, A. 2021. “İlk Tunç Çağı'nda Orta Torosların Kuzeyi Dağlık Alan: Ekonomik ve Sosyo-Politik Yapıya İlişkin Yorumlar.” MÖ III. Binyılda Anadolu Genel Durum ve Son Dönem Araştırmaları, 19–22 February 2021.
• Hacar, A. (with H. S. Egeci) 2020. “Niğde İli Dağlık Alan Arkeolojik Yüzey Araştırması: 2018 Yılı.” Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı, 37-1: 1–20.
• Hacar, A. 2019. “Niğde İli Çamardı Ulukışla ve Bor İlçeleri Yüzey Araştırması: 2017 Yılı.” Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı, 36-1: 1–22.

Project Contributors

Institutions

• Hitit University
• Ministry of Culture and Tourism
• General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums
• Niğde Museum Directorate
• Turkish Historical Society
• Kemerhisar Municipality

Individuals

• Yakup ÜNLÜER
• Prof. Dr. Aslıhan YENER
• Prof. Dr. Sevil GÜLÇUR
• Prof. Dr. Fikri KULAKOĞLU
• Prof. Dr. Bekir Necati ALTIN
• Prof. Dr. Türkan Bayer ALTIN
• H. Simge Egeci HACAR
• Nilay ÇETİN
• Dr. Michael JOHNSON
• Murat TEKTAŞ
• Dr. Lorenzo CASTELLANO
• Dr. Emine KÖKER
• Dr. Meral BAŞARAN MUTLU
• Dr. Ahmet Emin KARKINLI
• Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bora YENİHAN
• Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ayşin KONAK
• Şerife ÇAKAR
• Züleyha DOĞAN
• Şeyda ÇAKMAK
• Defne ERGİN
• Öznur ERYAZ
• Tunahan SEYİS
• Eda KEÇECİ
• Mesut KORKUT
• İpek Sıla ERDEM
• Damla BALTACI
• Altay ÖZMUT
• Şebnem Zeynep TAŞTAN
• Mevhibe Elvan ÖZTÜRK
• Simay DENİZ
• Murat GOLMOHAMMADI
• Nuray BAŞARAN
• Esmanur KARATAŞ
• Nursel TAN
• Zehra KOYUNCU
• Âdem Sefa ÜNSAL